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On the whole, he finds that participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre increases not only policy knowledge on the part of participants and elites but also justice and accountability in policy formula- tion (p. 362).
As authors such as Radin (2000), Prince (2007) and Parsons (2004), among others, have argued, the well-known older 'speaking truth to power' model of policy advice (Wildavsky, 1979) has given way in many policy-making circumstances to a more fluid, pluralized and polycentric advice-giving reality that has been characterized as 'sharing truth with many actors of influence' or 'weaving' policy knowledge (Maley, 2011; Parsons, 2004; Prince, 2007).
A similar literature has focused on elite policy knowledge and its impact on policy formulation, problem definition and policy design, highlighting biases in the use of instrumental, technical and scientific knowledge at the expense of other social, political and economic knowledge (community, participatory, stakeholder knowledge sources) (Daviter, 2015; Fischer, 2003; Freeman & Sturdy, 2014; Mead, 2015; Oh, 1997; Radaelli, 1995; Weiss & Gruber, 1984).
Increasingly, policy making and the sources of policy knowledge reflect greater levels of exogeneity, where sites of expertise and knowledge inputs are often extraneous and situated in specialist communities of practice or complex networks of technicians, advocacy groups and civil society.
Policy formulation associ- ated with competition practices, regulatory reform, tax, trade facilitation, corporate governance, innovation, science and technology, industry policy and numerous others, for example, are as likely to be based on policy knowledge filtered through the technical committees of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization or the scientific committees of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) as they are on policy knowledge held by senior bureaucrats of the relevant national ministries (Finnemore & Barnett, 2004).
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